Passenger Train Variations.

Whilst this page primarily looks at 'self-driving' passenger railways one noteworthy non-passenger railway which used unstaffed trains that merits a mention is London's Post Office Railway.

Also known as Mail Rail, this narrow-gauge driverless railway was built by the Post Office to avoid the traffic jams on London's notoriously congested roads when moving mail between sorting offices. It opened in 1927, although trial services began during the general strike of 1926.

The Post Office Railway ran east-west from Paddington Head District Sorting Office in west London to the Eastern Head District Sorting Office at Whitechapel in east London, a distance of 6.5 miles (10.5km) via Mount Pleasant sorting office. Initially there were eight stations, a ninth was added in 1965 after a short diversion had been built to serve a new local area post delivery office.

The line's demise came because many of the 'street level' mail sorting offices served were relocated away from the railway and it then being deemed 'too expensive' to keep the rest of the line open (compared to the cost of moving mail by road vehicles). Closure came in 2003, although in case it is decided at a future date that it should be reopened it has been 'mothballed' so as to maintain the integrity of the infrastructure.

The trains were electrically powered using a 3rd rail which was energised at 440v dc between stations and at 150v dc within the stations. Although they were driverless their routing was controlled using lever frames located at the stations, with express trains being directed to through tracks around stopping services at intermediate stations.

More information: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_Post_Office_Railway .

The First (Passenger) Automation - New York City.

What is believed to have been the passenger-carrying automated urban railway was the IRT Grand Central-Times Square Shuttle on the New York City, USA, Subway.

The project for an automated train actually began in 1959, and by the spring of 1960 early automation trials were underway on a remote section of track which would not interfere with other passenger services, this being between New Utrecht Ave and 18th Ave. Testing continued for many months, during which time various changes and tweaks were made to refine the technology.

In March 1961 work began to convert track 4 of the Times Square - Grand Central Shuttle to be suitable for automated operation, and later in the year the train began running without passengers.

Passenger services began in January 1962. Agreement was reached with the unions for a motorman to ride in the train at all times - whilst the unions may have been concerned about the future loss of employment for its members with present-day eyes it could also be seen as having been more of a PR gesture to reassure passengers than a technical need.

Services continued until April 1964 when a fire in 42nd Street station ended up significantly damaging the automated train and with the steel beams holding up the station roof having buckled the station had to be closed - and the street above - in case it collapsed into the station. The fire's cause was not related with the automated shuttle train and with the wayside / relay equipment (a short distance away from the train) having been completely unaffected it was entirely feasible that once the rolling stock had been repaired or replaced automated operations could have resumed. However, by 1964 a the management in charge of the New York Subway had changed and the new people had no interest in automation, so when the services restarted all trains were manually driven again.

The above information represents a brief precis of a much more detailed article on the nycsubway.org website. The full page can be reached at this link... http://www.nycsubway.org/lines/irtshuttle.html .

Since then automation has been off the agenda for the Subway, although (as is seen below) New York's AirTrain JFK service is an automated rail service.

After initial safety trials proved successful Londons' first automatically driven passenger train ran in 1963 between Stamford Brook and Ravenscourt Park on the District Line. These initial trials involved just one specially modified train whilst travelling between two stations as part of a much longer journey and although the train drove itself the train driver always remained in the cab to oversee events. All other trains travelling between the two stations continued to operate in normal 'human driven' mode

With further trials between these two stations continuing to prove successful, in 1964 full scale trials of automatically operated trains began on the Hainault - Woodford section of the Central Line, which at that time was operated as a small branch-line shuttle service. Initially a dedicated fleet of four trains was involved, later all the new trains destined for what was to become the first full automated line (and is known as the Victoria Line) were tested here too.

London - First With Multiple Automatically-driven & Human-driven Trains.

Because the shuttle service operated over tracks used by other trains so these trials effectively included shared operation of automated and human driven trains. The latter included Underground trains on both the Epping route as well as (between Woodford and Grange Hill) on peak-hour 'extra' workings travelling to & from Hainault depôt which is located between Hainault and Grange Hill stations. These trials began at a time when many of the surface stations still had goods yards and the mainline railway (British Railways) still operated goods / freight trains to Epping and Newbury Park via Woodford. In addition in those days British Railways still operated some passenger trains (both normal service and Sunday excursion - typically to the south coast), so their steam (diesel in later days) trains also travelled on tracks that were being used by the automated trains.

British Railways operated trains here because these lines date from between 1904 and the 1860's, and even when London Transport's electric tube trains started travelling along these lines they continued to operate a few passenger and goods (freight) trains. The last goods trains ran in 1966 and the last diesel passenger trains (on the Epping service) in 1970.
For more information follow this link which opens a 'pdf' format document.
http://www.theydon.org.uk/lhs/Downloads/LHS%20News%20178.pdf

The mixing of self-driving automated and manually (human) driven trains was possible because the automated system overlaid and followed the existing traditional style signalling 'block' system whereby the track is split into predetermined fixed size sections (or 'blocks') with semaphore or colour light signals located along the line telling a train driver whether it is safe to enter the next block section. With this system the signalling system is itself blind to the type of train using that section of track - more modern signalling systems use moving block systems where the trains and signalling systems interact with each other so that there is a moving 'safety zone' into which following trains must not enter which always travels with the train (right behind it). Advantages of the moving block system include that by using trains with predictable operating characteristics they are able to travel at closer intervals whilst still maintaining absolute safety, which translates into more trains being operated; the disadvantages include that the trains need to be able to interact with the signalling system - which means that only trains which carry the required communications equipment can be permitted to use the section of railway.

FACT - Fully Automatic Control of Trains

In the late 1970's one of the shuttle trains was converted for trials of NOPO (no person operation), although on those days it was known as NOMO (no man operation). These trials were carried out between Hainault and Woodford when the railway was closed to passenger services. When operating in fully unstaffed mode a blue light on the left of the destination blind box was illuminated. This project was called FACT - Fully Automatic Control of Trains. The FACT project is understood to have concluded in 1978, due to lack of finance to progress it further.

With safe operation of all the trains having been proven the new Victoria Line was able to open in 1967 as London's first fully automated underground line. Despite plans for further automation nothing more actually happened (on London's Underground) until the 1990's, when the entire Central Line was equipped with new trains and converted to fully automated operation - albeit with a driver still in the cab controlling the passenger doors. (not illustrated).

However whilst London rested on its laurels (took a siesta?) automation found favour in other countries and now the list includes cities such as Paris, Berlin, Lille, Lyon, Vancouver, Barcelona, Manilla, Hong Kong, Kuala Lumpur, San Francisco, Montréal, plus many, many more.

Two Trains - Same Station Platform!

A design feature of the Victoria Line's signalling was that at busy times the front of a slow moving train arriving at a station would enter the platform area whilst the rear of an accelerating departing train was still also in the station. This was possible because the signalling was designed to permit slow moving trains to be close together in this way. However, the sight of two closely spaced trains upset passengers so much that the signalling system was later modified to prevent this from happening.

Automation 'In Place' Upgrade.

The automated train control system used on the Victoria Line was developed 'in house' by London Transport and gave over 40 years of almost entirely trouble-free service. It was finally deactivated in July 2011, after the introduction of a fleet of new trains which use wireless communication technology and a more sophisticated computerised 'moving block' system. This was the first time that an automated passenger railway has been upgraded with a newer automation technology and in the period when some trains from each fleet were operating the new trains used a hybrid system which allowed them to operate under the protection of the existing signalling. In addition to the new train control systems the completion of the upgrade process has enabled the new trains to start using their regenerative braking which recycles braking energy into the track for other trains to use as well as their improved acceleration and ability to travel at their maximum service speed of 50mph (80km/h) without constantly catching up the slower (47mph / 74km/h) older trains in front.

At the present time more lines on the Underground system are being converted to enable automated train operations, although a nuisance legacy of the fragmented way privatisation forced the network to operate means that rather than using one compatible system for the entire network several groups of lines will use different systems. July 2011 saw the completion of the conversion of the Jubilee Line to automated operation. One knock-on effect of this was that for reasons of incompatibility the remaining (manually driven) Metropolitan Line services which travelled over Jubilee Line tracks on the shared route in north London had to be withdrawn. As of November 2013 the Northern Line is being converted to full automation, with some sections of line already converted and others still controlled by the older colour-light signal signalling system. Then the subsurface lines will be converted (Metropolitan, District, Circle, Hammersmith & City). This project will involve several sections of track where manually driven mainline railway trains provide joint services with the Underground trains. Because in west London the Piccadilly Line also shares tracks with the District and Metropolitan Lines so it is possible that the latter's trains will also be automated as part of the same project - albeit perhaps only where the trains intermingle. The subsurface automation project will also include provision for some special trains, such as the 1938 Heritage Train, the 1923 electric locomotive as well as steam and diesel powered special trains.

The three basic types of automation.

There are three basic variants of automated railway operation which apply irrespective of type of train used.

• Where the trains travel automatically from station to station but a human train driver is always present at the front of the train, with responsibility for door closing, obstacle detection on the track before the train and handling of emergency situations.
• In a driverless system where the trains runs automatically from station to station but a human Passenger Service Agent is always present somewhere in the train, with responsibility for door closing and to reassure nervous passengers that there is someone 'onboard' who can take control in the (unlikely) event of a failure or an emergency situation.
• In a completely driverless system where the trains run automatically at all times, handle door closing, obstacle detection and emergency situations, with the only input from transport staff being from a remote control centre. The acronym that is used to describe metros which operate in this way is UTO - Unattended Train Operation.

Automation offers financial savings in both energy and wear & tear costs because trains are driven to an optimum specification - instead of according to each motorman's 'style'. Automated trains react more quickly to changes, such as pulling away immediately after a red signal changes to green - rather than the delay of even a second or two which occurs with human drivers. Although delays of even one second may sound minimal, their cumulative effects, when translated to every train, negatively impinges upon the service frequency (especially during rush hours) and therefore reduces the number of trains which can travel along a section of track.

Where trains are completely unstaffed having fewer people on the payroll is financially advantages as staff represent a significant part of the cost of running a transport system. Some other advantages of not requiring staff to be available to drive the trains include the ability to provide far more frequent services at quiet times (such as evenings and weekends) when passenger levels are lower and the revenue earned would not justify the costs of employing a full complement of train drivers, and the ability of train operators to vary the service frequency to meet a sudden unexpected demand - such as to instantly put extra trains into service when torrential rain interrupts an outdoor event and everyone decides to go home at 5pm instead of 7pm (17:00 instead of 19:00).

The weak link.

Automated railways work on the basis of the trains collecting information about the line ahead, signals, maximum speeds etc., as they travel, which is all well and good for most of the time, but if the communications signal is lost then the system tends to fall over - or in other words, everything comes to a dead stop - as this is the only realistic way of ensuring absolute safety. Where there are railway staff on the trains it is often possible for them to override the 'no code / automatic stop', but for safety (to reduce the risk of colliding with a train in front - especially when in tunnels) when in this emergency mode the trains are normally restricted to a very slow speed. Typically this will be something like 10mph or 15km/h. If the fault is 'just' that one train has lost the ability to receive the communications signal then it is usually possible for the train to be driven at this speed to somewhere where it can be taken out of service without blocking the rest of the route. But, at that very slow speed it is inevitable that all other trains behind it (plus the passengers!) will experience significant delays.

London's Docklands Light Railway (DLR) is one of the automated systems which to reassure passengers nervous for personal safety and to deter vandalism also carries a member of staff on each train. In addition to closing the doors and despatching the train from stations, these 'Train Captains' also check passenger's tickets and offer travel advice for passengers who are not local. They also carry a two-way radio so are in constant contact with the control centre.

Because train drivers who do not drive trains for more than a certain period of time lose their safety certification so all DLR services are manually driven on Sunday mornings. The same also applies to the London Underground Central Line, as these trains are also normally computer driven.

In many ways the DLR blends and blurs the different categories of railway public transport. Services are provided by light rail vehicles but the 3rd rail power system they use is more reminiscent of London's mainline railways than what is usual for what essentially are 'trams' (streetcars). Because the DLR is an automated system it can also be called an automated guided transit (AGT); however it provides a far more extensive service than is usual for AGT's - such as are often found at airports - and in this respect is more on par with the 'mini-métros' such as the French VAL system (see below). But, when it was realised that the original DLR vehicles from when the line first opened back in 1977 could not be used on the London Underground 'tube' style extension to Bank underground station (they did not conform to British safety standards for tunnel operation) these vehicles found a new home in Essen, Germany, where after being fitted with driving cabs and pantographs started operating over that cities' light rail system - which includes both tram-style sections of street running shared with the general road traffic and tunnel services in Essen's underground system.

DLR Train Captains can close the doors from any set of doors along the train. This image shows one of their control panels - these are located next to every passenger doorway. The lights illuminate at every position throughout the train, although only the Train Captain can make the buttons work:-

• The top item is designed for the Train Captain's knowledge only.
• Next to the blue lamp is the code 'RTD' which stands for 'ready to depart'. It illuminates to tell the train captain to close the doors - the significance being that if a train has the equivalent of a red signal (whilst calling at a station) then this lamp will remain off until the line ahead is clear.
• Next to the white lamp is the code 'ADC', which stands for 'all doors closed'. This tells the train captain that all doors (except the doors where they are standing) are safely closed - although they may still wish to perform a visual check to verify that all is in order.
• Next to the red lamp is 'l' symbol. As I understand it this light only illuminates when someone has activated the 'on-train' passenger alarm. To discourage abuse there is a financial penalty for activating the alarm without good cause.
• Below the lamps is a position designed for the Train Captain's knowledge only.
• Below that are some loudspeakers.
• The next button is labelled 'ROD' which stands for 're-open doors'.
• The next button is labelled 'CTD' which stands for 'close these doors' ie: close the two doors in this doorway.
• The next button is labelled 'COD' which stands for 'close other doors' ie: close the all open doors on this side of the train except this set of doors at which the Train Captain is standing.
• Then there is what I would assume is where the Train Captain speaks when making an announcement to all the passengers on this train.
• Finally, a button marked 'PA' which when pressed enables the microphone above.

As previously stated, not everyone likes unstaffed trains - some passengers suggest that they make them feel distinctly uneasy just in case there is a failure. This fear of things that drive themselves - though understandable - is irrational because although very rare when rail accidents do occur the majority of them can be attributed to human error - often by the signalmen or train driver (signal past at danger - SPAD - being a known issue) and it is in the fitting of automated safety systems that override human errors these incidents are usually prevented. The real danger comes from the roads where there are so many accidents that the media generally only reports them when they involve either major carnage or multiple deaths.

In February 1981 the Japanese opened the first urban automated guideway transit (AGT) of the present era.

The Kobe Port Island Line (commonly known as Port Liner) was built to link and open up for development the artificial island of Port Island with Sannomiya Station, Kobe's main transit hub. The line also serves the new Kobe Airport, which was built on an artificial island near Port Island.

Tokyo's first AGT system is the New Transit Yurikamone, which when it opened in 1995 was known as the Tokyo Waterfront New Transit Waterfront Line. This line serves the artificial island of Odaiba which has become a popular entertainment and leisure destination. Despite charging premium fares and there being cheaper (subterranean) alternatives the line is popular because being elevated it offers passengers excellent skyline views. Carrying over 100,000 passengers per day it makes a net profit and will fully pay off its construction cost loans more quickly than the originally anticipated 20 year period. The line is 14.7km (little over 9 miles) in length and serves 16 stations.

By way of a contrast, the Horishima Astram Line still retains a member of staff at the front of the train.

The clickable larger images will allow for a closer inspection of the guidance system.

Some people may baulk at the elevated nature (over a roadway median) of the line, however in a crowded cityscape this makes excellent sense; it is safer than having the transport at grade and with overall system construction costs in mind being elevated represents a much more cost effective solution than locating the system below ground.

In 1983 the French city of Lille opened the first métro system with fully unstaffed trains.

These trains use the 'VAL' system which nowadays exists in several cities including Paris, Toulouse, Rennes Turin (Italy), Taipei (Taiwan) & Chicago (USA). The name 'VAL' was originally used because it represented the route of the first line - Villeneuve d'Ascq à Lille (ie: Villeneuve d'Ascq to Lille) - but now it officially stands for véhicule automatique léger, or automated light(weight) vehicle. The term 'lightweight' refers to the fact that at just 26 metres in length (two linked cars), 2 metres in width and with a passenger capacity of 152 per twin-unit train the VAL trains are smaller in size, mass etc. than traditional trains. They partially make up for their low passenger capacity however by being able to operate at headways as close as 60 seconds.

The advantages of using 'lightweight' trains such as these is that it reduces the cost of building the system. Shorter trains require shorter (cheaper to construct) stations whilst lighter-weight railcars require physical infrastructure which is of a lower mass and therefore also less expensive to construct.

Note that VAL follows the French passion for rubber-tyred métros.

In 2006 a successor to the VAL system was announced. The NeoVal will use a single central rail for guidance and will be able to operate without any electrical supply between the stations (no third rail or overhead), making the cost of infrastructure much lower.

The VAL automated metro system is also used in the Italian city of Turin (Torino).

Another French City with an unstaffed automated métro line is Lyon; this uses a different system and its trains feature large panoramic front windows so passengers can enjoy the view of where they are going. Note that in Lyon only line D is automated and that instead of platform doors an infra-red system detects obstructions on the platform edge.

Several Canadians cities also use automated métros, and as with the French they use home-grown technology.

Originally named ICTS (for Intermediate Capacity Transit System) The Canadian system uses rolling stock known as Canadian Automated Light Rail Transit vehicles (ALRT). This system combines both traditional and several innovative state-of-the-art technologies; for guidance it uses traditional standard gauge steel-wheels-on-steel-rail technology and innovative steerable bogies whilst for propulsion it features innovative Linear Induction Motors (LIM), which is an electromagnetic propulsion system. This was the first major application of LIM technology for urban transport.

With steerable bogies the two axles independently follow the track curvature, this significantly reduces flange contact with the rail thereby substantially reducing rail noise as well as bogie & track maintenance requirements plus extends wheel life to almost one million km.

Linear Induction Motors are ‘straight line' versions of the conventional rotary alternating current electric motor.

Motive power comes from the motors reacting with the aluminum-capped steel rail located between the running rails. There are no moving parts, substantially reducing maintenance and risk of mechanical failure. Braking is effected by using the LIMs to act as electricity generators (effectively this means regenerative braking which returns power back to the power rails for other trains to use) although at lower speeds the LIMs are powered to provide reverse thrust. This electrical braking mode is supplemented by spring-applied hydraulically-released disc brakes for final stopping and parking.

Being light rail vehicles they also use additional electro-magnetic track brakes which slide along the running rails and assure a rapid stop in an emergency.

Nowadays the system is known as Advanced Rapid Transit (ART) and a new generation of higher capacity rolling stock has been introduced.

The original (UTDC) Mark I cars are 12 m (40 ft) long while the second generation (Bombardier) Mark II cars are 18 m (60 ft) long each and comprise of articulated pairs.

Two Canadian, two American and one Malaysian city use the ART system. In 1985 Toronto was the first city to open an ART route, and here it acts as an add-on to the pre-existing heavy rail subway and streetcar networks. Although the vehicles are automated all trains carry a driver whose duties include initiating door closure & station departure.

Vancouver's system opened in 1986 and here the system acts as a fully automated mini-métro. The 2, 4 or even 6-car trains are unstaffed / driverless and call at station platforms which do not have platform doors. It is called SkyTrain because apart from a short tunnel section in the city centre the initial part of the system was mostly elevated (aka: 'in the sky'). Since opening the network has been extended several times, plus several completely new routes have been built as well, although one of these eschews ART technology. Along with the (electric) trolleybuses and commuter rail the SkyTrain network forms the backbone of Vancouver's urban transport network.

Vancouver's SkyTrain system continues to expand although whilst the Canada Line - which opened in August 2009 - also uses automated trains they use different steel wheel technologies.

In Detroit single or twin-car Mk1 ART trains travel along an elevated guideway on a 2.9 miles (4.7 km) one-way loop, calling at 13 stations. A complete circuit takes just under 15 minutes and services operate at three to five minute intervals. The DPM (Detroit People Mover) was meant to be a 'downtown distributor' for a planned new rapid transit rail system serving the city, however this was not built.

In New York the ART system is used on the AirTrain JFK service which is an 8.1-mile (approximately 13km) line that connects John F. Kennedy International Airport (JFK) to the city's subway and commuter trains, and airport car parking areas. The AirTrain operates three services, one of which just links the various airport terminals in a clockwise loop whilst the other two serve the terminals in an anti-clockwise loop and then extend towards New York City, splitting enroute to serve Howard Beach-JFK and Jamaica Stations where there are interchange facilities with some New York Subway and Long Island Railroad services (plus many bus lines). Before splitting these services also call at an intermediate station (Federal Circle) to serve the car rental companies, hotel shuttle buses to hotels and the airport's air cargo area.

Because of its specialist operations servicing an airport the AirTrain is free for to travel within the airport and to / from Federal Circle station. However fares must be paid by passengers either joining or leaving the AirTrain at Howard Beach-JFK or Jamaica stations. As with most other dedicated rail-air links the fares are of a premium nature, and as is often the situation in large cities which operate electronic ticketing systems these fares can only be paid using the electronic tickets. In New York these tickets are known as a MetroCard and take the form of thin, plastic cards with a magnetic stripe on one side which the customer electronically loads with fares. They are widely used in New York on urban transportation services operated by (or for) the Metropolitan Transportation Authority. Other ticketing options for the AirTrain JFK include multi-ride MetroCards of various types.

In Malaysia the ART system is used on the Kelana Jaya Line, which is coloured pink on the Kuala Lumpur transit map. The system operates a mix of two and four car trains, with the latter gradually being introduced as more rolling stock becomes available.

In Beijing, China this system is also used on a dedicated airport service. Known as the Airport Express it is 27km (a little under 17 miles) in length and connects the Beijing Capital International Airport with Dongzhimen in Beijing. In all there are four stops, two at the airport (serving terminal 3 and then terminal 2) and two at interchange stations with the underground railway.

Because of its specialist operations servicing an airport and in common with most other dedicated rail-air links the Airport Express charges a special fare that is much higher than the regular fare for the other local transports.

This line opened just a few weeks before the August 2008 Beijing Olympic games.

Another system which uses the Bombardier ALRT system is the Korean EverLine. Located in Yongin, Seoul Capital Area, this 18.5km long 15 station service links Everland, South Korea's most popular theme park, with the Bundang Line of the Seoul Metropolitan Subway.

Most of South Korea's seven major cities also have urban rapid transit metro systems. Line 4 of the Busan Metro (which is also called the 'Bansong Line') is a rubber-tyred system that uses automated guided transit (AGT) technology. It is 12.7km (7.9miles) in length and has 14 stations, of which 8 are underground, 1 is at ground-level, and 5 are above ground. Meanwhile whilst the Busan - Gimhae Light Rail Transit is also fully automated, it uses conventional standard gauge steel wheel technology. This line links cities of Busan and Gimhae, travelling via Gimhae International Airport, and is 24km in length with 21 stations.

In Paris, France, the first trials with automation took place in 1951. Between 1952 & 1956 trials used a train in passenger service. After multi-train trials in the 1960's the period 1972-1979 saw wholesale conversion of most of the métro system to automatically driven trains. However (at that time) door control and giving the 'starting' signal (after station stops) still remained in the domain of a 'real person'.

Note that only some of the Parisian system uses rubber-tyred trains - the rest still uses traditional steel wheel technology!

With Line 14 being very successful in 2005 it was decided to convert the extremely busy Line 1 to full driverless operation as well. The conversion process included the installation of platform screen doors or gates 1.8m high at every station (they had to be high to prevent people vaulting over them!) and unlike when there are major works on railways in Britain as much as possible was done whilst the system was still operating; ie: with minimal inconvenience to passengers being a part of the process. Where closures were required (eg: for adjusting platform floor heights) stations were tackled one at a time, over a weekend - with the trains still running. The works included station refurbishments and platform alterations to facilitate level access with the train floors. Between November 2011 and December 2012 as the new fleet of driverless trains were introduced the line operated using a mix of unstaffed and staffed trains. After 15th December 2012 sufficient new trains had been introduced to service to permit 100% driverless automated services to become the norm.

In July 2013 it was announced that Line 4 will also be converted to fully automated operation. Work will start in 2014 and the project is expected to be completed in 2022.
More information: http://metroautomation.org/a-new-conversion-paris-metro-will-automate-line-4/ .

In Germany several cities have hosted trials with automated trains. As part of a Federal Government project the 1960's and 1970's saw trails on the Hamburg U-Bahn. These eventually led to automated passenger services which between October 1982 and January 1985 operated over 10km of railway. Since then however automated operation has been discontinued in Hamburg.

Berlin first experimented with automation in 1928, with the system being overlaid upon the existing signal block system near to Krumme Lanke station. The aim was to influence the train over its entire route rather than just at signals. Further trials in 1958/9 with the LZB technique attempted to control train speeds as well, albeit not with enough success to be deemed viable.

There was greater success in the 1960's. In 1965 night-time trials commenced between Spichernstraße and Zoological Garden stations on line U9. In 1967 the system was working well enough to hold a press event promoting it. In 1969 the test train was carrying passengers, and by May 1976 the entire Line U9 had been converted to automated operations - albeit initially only during off-peak hours. Full day services began in 1977, and continued for 15 years until 1993, by when age-related deterioration of the system had started to cause issues. 1994 saw a partial reactivation, with the aim of testing automated train reversing at terminals, however these night-time trials did not produce reliable success and with the necessary investments not being seen as being in proportion to the savings achieved so in 1998 the entire project was abandoned.

In the 1970's a technology from a rival company was also trialed on a section of elevated U-Bahn that had been closed following the division of the city. This was between Bülowstrasse and Potsdamer Platz stations via the lower level platforms at Gleisdreieck station. The technology was the SelTrac system. With part of the route destined for conversion into the automated magnetic levitation M-Bahn* so the next trials with this technology were switched to Line U4, which is very short and only serves 5 stations. Here trials lasted from 1981 until 1985, when the technology was deemed mature enough to operate trains carrying passengers. Automated passenger services lasted from 1985 until 1993.

*The M-Bahn is a 'cabin' transport and looked at on the Monorails, Maglevs and 'Cabin' Transports page.

Between 1996 and 2000 further automation trials were conducted on line U5, between Friedrichsfelde and Biesdorf-Süd stations. Known as the STAR project this used radio technology to communicate with the trains. However with the westward extension of Line U5 from Alexanderplatz being delayed due to lack of finance it was decided that the entire line did not need the benefits which would come from automated operations and when (in 2002) the project was formally ended no further developments were scheduled. The next stage in the long-term plans had been to convert an existing railway to automated operations, and whilst this did not happen in Berlin it was realised elsewhere in Germany.

Data sources, both English and German language pages at Wikipedia and these three German language links, via online translation utilities (links open in new windows):-
http://www.berliner-verkehrsseiten.de/u-bahn/Stellwerke/Zugsicherungstechnik/LZB/lzb.html
http://www.berliner-verkehrsseiten.de/u-bahn/Stellwerke/Zugsicherungstechnik/SELTRAC/seltrac.html
http://www.berliner-verkehrsseiten.de/u-bahn/Stellwerke/Zugsicherungstechnik/STAR/star.html

Although developments in Hamburg and Berlin stagnated and even went retrograde, automation was also on the agenda in other German cities. Perhaps the most noteworthy is Nuremberg where a project called RUBIN (Realising an automated U-Bahn In Nürnberg) resulted in the successful realisation of not just Germany's first fully automated / driverless U-Bahn but also the first instance anywhere globally any of a driverless automated system - that was in passenger service - sharing tracks with manually driven trains. This second achievement differed to what has been achieved in London in the 1960's because the London Transport trains still had train drivers - although their main duties were to close the doors at stations, initiate station departure and generally watch over proceedings in case of malfunction or an unexpected obstacle on the track.

In Nuremberg line U3 comprises of two suburban branches on opposite sides of the city which feed in to line U2 and share its tracks in the city centre. Linking the two branches under the banner of a different line helps passengers plan their journeys. The automated system was implemented as what is called a hot plug-in, which means that it was done without interrupting train services. Line U3 was opened in June 2008. Afterwards the U2 line was automated on a 'train by train' basis as new rolling stock became available, with full automation on the U2 finally being realised in January 2010.

German regulations say that trains should not stop inside a tunnel after the emergency alarm has been activated or if any other hazard like a fire is detected, instead they should proceed to the next station, as this will ease rescue operations. Therefore to enhance safety as much as possible and minimise risks to passengers the trains which operate in driverless mode were designed with enhanced safety features including:-

• The ability of passengers to speak with the control centre.
• CCTV cameras linked to the control centre, so that controllers can always watch events on the train in real-time.
• Flame-retardant materials - including fire resistant electrical cabling.
• Multiple temperature sensors and smoke detectors in both passenger areas and every underfloor machinery compartment - the aim being to detect possible fires as early as possible.

One of the challenges which had to be overcome was the provision of an automated emergency stop system should a passenger or object fall on to the track from a station platform. The usual solution is to fit platform doors, however with some stations already in service it was felt that the severe service disruptions and station closures would have caused too much disruption to passengers. In addition there were concerns about the feasibility of requiring the drivers of Line 2's manually driven trains to stop within the few centimetre tolerance required for the train and platform doors to meet. Initial obstacle detection trails used station roof to platform edge laser light barriers. However the chosen method features a combination of CCTV cameras overlooking the track bed and radio frequency barriers between from under the platform edge to the opposing wall. In the event of something being detected the safety systems will automatically halt approaching trains and alert the control centre, from where a controller can use the CCTV cameras to make a visual inspection and take the appropriate action.

Despite being fully automated they still (sometimes) carry a member of staff. This is primarily a customer relations gesture to reassure passengers that all is well, as well as looking out for unruly passengers and offering general travel advice, if need be.

London - Nuremberg Contrasts. Who Was First With What?

The metro automation website cites Nuremberg as being the first city to have automated a previously manually driven underground railway (U-Bahn / metro / subway) and to be the first city to have operated automated and manually driven trains on the same tracks.

Data source:
http://metroautomation.org/conversion-pioneer-nuremberg-celebrates-5th-anniversary-of-unattended-train-operations/#more-2009

However, that is not exactly accurate. Back in the 1960's part of the London Transport Central Line was automated, and included both self-driving and manually driven trains travelling (in full public service) over the same tracks. In addition, some of the manually driven trains were diesel powered passenger and freight / goods trains! 30 years later the automated section was upgraded to a newer automation technology and the rest of the Central Line was also upgraded from manual operations to automation.

Where London's Underground and Nurembergs' U3 differ is that in London the method of automation involves trains which did / still do feature a member of staff who sits in a traditional driver's cab at the front of the train and who closes the train doors prior to initiating station departure. In addition, in London the train drivers still sometimes drive the trains - especially on Sundays - this is necessary because otherwise their license to drive the trains will lapse.

By way of contrast Nuremberg's U3 uses fully unstaffed / unattended trains which instead of a train driver's cab have clear glass train ends so that passengers can enjoy forward facing views of the journey.

Whilst trains on London's Docklands Light Railway also have clear glass front windows for passengers to enjoy the forward view, they also retain a member of staff who closes the train doors and initiates station departure.

At present one of the MRT lines on the Island State of Singapore uses fully automated and driverless trains, although more are planned. This is the 20km (12½ mile) North East Line heavy metro line which opened on 20 June 2003. It is also the first fully subterranean line in Singapore.

When built this line featured 16 stations, although provision was made for a few more to be added at a later date. Passengers using this line are charged higher fares than on other lines in Singapore, this is said to reflect the line's high cost of construction.

Faced with severe environmental issues related to motor vehicle exhaust fumes the Italian city of Perugia decided that the only solution lay in restricting car and motorcoach access to parts of the city centre. However they also recognised that another part of the solution lay in improving public transport so that fewer people would want to drive their own cars and that visitors who come by motorcoach should also be happy to leave their vehicles outside of the city centre. Therefore, in addition to increasing car and coach parking capacity on the outskirts of the historic city centre and installing escalators between the parking areas and the city centre, they built a new metro system.

Being a small city (population a little below 165,000) on a hilly location they reasoned that they needed a lower capacity system capable of climbing steeper gradients, and wanting to maintain attractiveness by means of a high service frequency they opted to use lower capacity 'cabin' type vehicles which would operate as a funicular railway.

Known as the MiniMetro the Perugia system can operate so frequently that waiting time is almost non-existent. 3.2km (2miles) in length the system currently has seven stations, although a second line with two further stations is planned. There are 25 rubber-tyred vehicles which like normal railways can be added or removed from service as required depending on expected passenger numbers. Five metres long each, they are fitted with eight tip-up and one fixed 'special needs' seats and have a maximum capacity of 50 passengers. Other features include an acoustic 'doors closing' alarm and LED display which provides 'next station' and destination updates. The systems' top speed various between 36-43km/h (22-26mph)

Services are only cable operated between stations, as at the stations they are automatically detached from the cable and conveyed through the station by an independent conveyor system.

Although generally welcomed the MiniMetro has attracted some complaints by people who live close to the route who cite the continuous hum of the cable pulleys as being somewhat noisy.

The name MiniMetro is a registered trade mark, so can only be used on systems developed by the Italian company Leitner, who are specialists in automatic aerial ropeways and chairlifts - so it is not surprising that some practices from these transports (such as disengaging from the cable at stations) have been ported over.

Along with some other automated 'cabin' transports more photographs of the MiniMetro can be found on the Monorails, Maglevs and 'Cabin' Transports. page.