Be readily available.
Be easy to use.
Represent good value for money
Cover the entire journey.
Be flexible.
Be fair.We live in a society where money is the unit of exchange for goods and services and although there are many problems connected with inequalities of earnings which affect different people's ability to afford a reasonable standard of living, whether they like it or not it is quite reasonable that passengers should pay something towards the cost of their travel. (It can be argued that at times they are asked to pay too much, but that is a different issue). Transport systems need to raise money to pay their staff (no not me - I do not work for any of them!) and generally towards their upkeep. Whether the social and economic benefits to the nation as a whole justify governments allocating taxpayers' money to contribute towards this current expenditure is debatable - especially if the transport is not operated efficiently and therefore incurs costs that it could avoid - however there is no doubt that investment in capital expenditure (ie: new infrastructure, extensions to existing lines, major renewals, street transport electrification...) should be based on the concept that as the whole community benefits, the whole community should pay. Indeed, even motorists who never use the system will benefit, albeit if only because by other motorists switching away from their cars then the roads will be emptier for them. |
This means that no matter how good the rest of the transport system - its integration, reliability, user-friendliness, etc., - the Fares And Ticketing System can make that vital difference which either attracts or repels passengers.
Good ticketing must:-
Readily available means that it is should be easy to purchase a ticket - not just for regular passengers but also for occasional users and visitors. The inability to purchase
a ticket at point of travel discourages honest irregular travellers and encourages (or at least gives a ready excuse for) fare evasion.
Be easy to use means that the fares system should be simple to understand, so that passengers have a reasonable chance of buying the correct ticket for their journey.
Cover the entire journey means that the same ticket, bought at or before the start of a journey will cover the whole journey, even if this journey requires several changes
(bus to train, and then to tram, etc). There also needs to be a mechanism whereby passengers who decide to alter their journey whilst en-route can pay any additional fare without being seen as wilful fare dodgers.
Represent good value for money is perhaps a subjective issue as one persons' concept of a reasonable fare will differ from anothers'. However most would agree that a policy
whereby fares are raised to such a high level that they are barely affordable will not represent good value for money and instead either encourage attempts at fare dodging or lead to more people choosing to go by car.
Sadly some of our British railcos use the "market forces - as high as people will pay" regime as their primary ticketing philosophy. As a contrast many European railways base their fares on the distance - travelled fares
chart, although they do have
discounted offers too.
In some countries they charge sales tax (VAT/GST) on public transport fares. The EU wants us to do the same here in Britain and it suggests that if, as a result, fares are too high then they should be subsidised. Experience in Switzerland (in 1995) showed that when 6.2% tax was added to fares the Federal Railways saw traffic fall by 5.5%, and revenue by 7.3%.
(Bureaucrats like subsidies because it creates extra work for more bureaucrats. This increases their self importance and in effect can be likened to a form of 'breeding' with ordinary people [ie: taxpayers] having to foot the bill. The financial implications of this never concern the bureaucrats because not only are they not democratically accountable but they are so highly paid that they just do not need to care! - witness the fact that in 2003 it was announced that for the 9th year in a row the EU's budget could not be ratified because too much money was going astray, leaking away...where to I wonder? - - and since Britain is one of the few net contributors its mostly our tax-payers money that is being siphoned off.)
Be flexible means to offer the same 'turn up and travel' flexibility as the private car. Many people only decide to travel at the last minute - often after having seen the weather
forecast - this flexibility is partly what attracts so many people to their cars, so to be competitive public transport MUST offer similar flexibility too.
In the days of the state-owned British Railways passengers were offered a choice of leisure tickets which included both discounted 'book-ahead' fares and discounted 'saver' & even 'super-saver' off-peak fares which could be bought for immediate "walk-on" travel (no seat reservation required) and were valid on most trains after 9.30am weekdays plus all day weekends. (OK super-savers could not be used on summer Fridays or Saturdays).
An unwelcome phenomena since privatisation is that many InterCity train companies have been eroding their 'walk-on" tickets by significantly increasing the prices, stiffening the restrictions on when they can been used (particularly by delaying the weekday "travel-after" times), and even abolishing them completely - forcing walk-on passengers to pay the full fare, which especially on the long distance railcos have risen far faster than inflation. Instead it has become policy to force passengers to book train travel like air travel - that is tickets are only valid on nominated trains and must be booked 7-14 days in advance.
Granted that there are some very good bargains to be had the whole point about train travel is that it should offer a 'turn up and go' service - after all no-one ever has to book a week in advance to use their private car when it is sitting in their driveway!
This 'nominated trains only' policy takes no account of the fact that the days' activities events can end early / over-run or that for some travel (especially day trips) unpredictable factors such as the weather can sometimes help when making the decision whether to return at 5pm (its raining) or 7pm (warm evening, very pleasant to be outside). Whilst inflexible ticketing systems may work well on the airlines (which have much more limited passenger capacities) the unfortunate reality is that some passengers have found their travel costs have risen by over 100% - effectively pricing them off the trains and into their private cars.
It is very regrettable that in September 2004 the longer distance "turn up and go" services out of London's Euston station are being scaled back because too many people were choosing them in preference to the faster service which for immediate travel is significantly more expensive (although the book ahead fares are very reasonable their restrictions make them more like airline travel than train travel and totally unsuitable for the many, many people who cannot plan ahead).
Be fair in this context the word fair means equitable - in the sense that it is only right that passengers should feel they are dealing with an honest organisation. However, the reverse
is also true and for passengers who - despite being able to do so - simply fail to purchase a ticket valid for the entire journey in advance of travelling the charging of a pre-set 'penalty' fare (eg: £10) is not unreasonable.
Persistent wilful fare dodgers still end up in court.
Sometimes though passengers fall foul of the rules through no fault of their own - for example... in Strasbourg, France passengers must validate their tickets before use. I failed to do this as I joined the system at an underground station where it was so dark (most of the lights were not working) that I did not see the ticket validators located on the platform. (In Britain the Health & Safety people would close stations in this condition, citing them as being dangerous!) Thankfully I was not caught by the roving ticket inspectors!!! I validated my ticket at a surface station when I saw other people validating their tickets and thereby realised my error.
Regular inspection is an essential element of all ticketing systems, otherwise the situation could arise as happened in Amsterdam, Holland, where the fares system became so lax that an American tourist guide book advised visitors that the trams were free to ride!
Multi-modal through ticketing is E S S E N T I A L The essence of multi-modal through ticketing is that as far as possible one ticket should cover the entire journey. To the passenger the advantages of not having to buy individual tickets are:-
saved time,
less hassle,
transport that is easier to use
the creation of the impression of a 'seamless' journey - even though there may be one (or more) changes required.
Transport operators benefit from multi-modal through ticketing too. The less handling of money / processing of 'plastic' card transactions plus shorter queues equates to lower demand on staff and an overall saving in the cost of maintaining ticketing facilities.
The only real 'disbenefit' is that by not selling any point-to-point tickets it becomes harder to update services in response to changes in long term passenger travel patterns.
As a general theme multi-modal through ticketing is usually considered as being for local / urban journeys within one city and its conurbations or a series of urban centres in a regional ticketing scheme. Some British long distance rail companies also offer combined rail + local bus / tram ticketing for certain routes and whilst this is commendable what is really required is a scheme such as in Holland where there is a national local transport ticket that can be used A N Y W H E R E in the country. (See below)
There is no reason why airlines cannot also be involved in multi-modal through ticketing travel - some airlines on business routes already give their passengers travel tickets for use in the destination city, they do this because they know that it makes life easier for business people on busy schedules by saving them time and hassle on arrival at their destination.
For many years public transport use in London was in decline. Almost every journey required a separate ticket and although period tickets were available they operated on a direct 'point to point' (nominated station) basis with little interavailability between the modes. This changed with the introduction of the Travelcard (a zonal 'ride at will' period ticket based on daily / weekly / longer time frames) which allows passengers to travel as much as they like by almost any transport* but only pay once. *Except river-buses or the special super fast and super expensive luxury 'Heathrow Express' airport service.
Transport experts now recognise that by changing the ticketing system the resulting increase in passenger levels more than covered any possible loss in fare receipts caused by passengers not paying separate bus fares. Furthermore, the resulting reduction of time it took passengers to board buses and show their passes (instead of fumbling in their pockets / purses to find the cash to pay the fare) helped reduce the delays that are synonymous with 'pay on entry buses'.
Amazingly the Travelcard almost did not happen - in 1983 the dedicated 'left-wing' leader of the Greater London Council (Ken Livingstone) faced much opposition to bring the scheme into being - at one stage even taking London Transport to court to force them to implement this new ticketing system. When in 1986 the right-wing national Government abolished the Greater London Council it took much public lobbying before the Travelcard's retention was assured - the Government wanted to replace it with a stored-value card where the value of each and every individual journey is deducted separately. This would have killed the "pay a flat fare just the once and then ride at will" aspect that makes the Travelcard so successful.
However, while 'period' ticket users enjoy multi-modal ticketing (infrequent) travellers who use 'single' tickets still have to pay separately for the rail and bus (and / or tram) segments of their journeys - with the notable exception of a few through journeys involving Croydons' trams and its dedicated feeder buses. The notes below do not mention the Docklands Light Railway, which generally follows the underground fares structure so that combined DLR & underground journeys are priced without surcharge.
On the railways it is generally possible to purchase through tickets for journeys involving mainline suburban and underground trains, but there is a serious financial penalty when compared to a ticket that involves just the underground. This applies even though the suburban mainline station where the journey began may be in the same Travelcard zone as a nearby suburban underground station. As a leaflet issued by ATOC (Association of Train Operating Companies) explains, these tickets are more expensive because part of the fare will be paid to other service providers. As a contrast period-ticket Travelcards are only priced according to the zone in which the station is to be found - although some mainline railway operators will sell "point to point" season tickets which are cheaper than travelcards - for use on their services only. One reason for their doing this is that it means they get to keep all the receipts themselves. (There are a handful of exceptions which relate to where mainline and underground trains serve parallel routes and call at the same suburban stations.)
In London the buses charge a simple flat fare, for (virtually) any journey, of any length. In addition to there being a range of very favourably priced "bus only" day and period tickets. Because the buses treat the entire London area as just one fare zone bus passengers are permitted to use all valid Travelcards throughout London, irrespective of the advertised zone(s) of validity. For Croydon's Tramlink Travelcards are accepted providingnthey are valid in any one (or more) of zones 3,4,5 or 6, these being the zones through Tramlink services are operated.
Part of the problem is that unlike many cities in the developed world, London's buses and trains have very different fare scales. The buses' flat fare is in sharp contrast to the railways which uses nine zones. (For journeys not wholly within the London zones the mainline railways mostly still use the older point to point system where fares differ according to distance between the start and destination stations.)
In London transport chiefs freely admit that train fares are being pushed up much higher than bus fares in order to encourage modal shift to the buses - and out of their cars / from the overcrowded trains. They also say that another reason for higher rail fares is that the train operators have to cover the infrastructure costs of the system - whereas buses use the public highway where local and national governments cover the infrastructure costs.
It is worth noting that because of its special status as a premium service special fares apply on the non-stop Heathrow Express between the Airport and London Paddington station. Furthermore, there is also a surcharge to travel to / from the airport using the local "all stations" Heathrow Connect service (but not for travel on local journeys in west London). Passengers not wishing to pay the surcharges can travel via the Piccadilly Line, or by bus. Once at the airport passengers can use the Heathrow Express and Connect services to travel between the stations for terminals 1,2,3 and terminal 4 for free!
In the longer term the planners still want to mutate the Travelcard into a stored value ticket which keeps the multi-modal aspect but increases revenue by charging 'something' for every journey. London also has an electronic ticketing system, but although it charges slightly cheaper fares the fare system is still very similar to what is described above. (See Other Ticketing Systems below).
Passengers using buses in Central London and on selected suburban bus routes (who wish to pay cash fares) are now required to pay their fare (aka buy their tickets) before boarding.
To facilitate this ticket machines (which sell single tickets and one day bus passes) have been installed at many hundreds of bus stops. Single tickets must be used within an hour of purchase and only on journeys involving one bus commencing at the bus stop where the ticket machine is located. These machines accept all gold & silver (but not copper) coloured coins & instead of giving change will allow passengers who do not have the correct money to overpay (that's er, um, nice!) They do not accept paper money. Unlike many North American & European cities there is no facility to transfer to a second bus (or other mode of transport) if this is required to complete an overall journey - effectively this means that in London passengers must pay a second fare to continue their journey - although as all-day bus rovers (passes) are cheaper than three single tickets so these provide a possible solution for return & other journeys which require three or more buses to complete. Slightly different arrangements apply to Croydon tramlink feeder buses Passengers with the electronic 'Oyster' card who are using PrePay benefit from cheaper bus fares and an arrangement whereby after three bus journeys no more bus fares are charged during that day. ('Oyster' is described in the Other Ticketing Systems section below). Alternatively the innovative light-bulb shaped pre-pay tickets can be bought from local shops, travel information offices and underground stations. These are available in 'books' of six tickets and are heavily discounted in price compared to tickets bought at bus stop ticket machines or (where permitted) from the driver when boarding a bus. These pre-pay tickets are also ideal for family (etc) groups as the individual tickets within each book can be shared with family and friends, with each ticket being for one journey, without transfer. |
With the fragmentation of our railways there sometimes arises a situation where different operators run competing services serving the same stations travelling over the same sections of track.
In many such locations the different train operating companies also charge different fares, with these generally being based on the logical principle whereby faster / more comfortable trains are dearer, and slower, more spartan, trains cheaper. Usually passengers who take the wrong train will - at best - have to buy a fresh ticket. In most cases there are also (often very expensive) 'full' fare tickets which can be used on any train along that route; perhaps the only exception in all of the UK to this is in London / Southern England on the route to Gatwick Airport where the government decided to prohibit what is known as ticket interavailability --
Three different train companies compete for passengers between Central London and Gatwick Airport. All charge different fares!! The Gatwick Express provides non-stop services into London Victoria Station. It uses specially-built trains and charges a premium fare. SouthCentral also uses Victoria Station, but operates local services serving many destinations in Southern England as well as South London; its fares are lower, and its trains are less plush and slower. Thameslink also uses 'suburban' style trains, and its services link Gatwick with North London via London Bridge Station, London's financial district and Kings Cross / St. Pancras Stations. Problems arise because between East Croydon and Gatwick Airport the Thameslink and SouthCentral services are interleaved - using the same tracks and station platforms - yet Thameslink charges a higher fare. Even a London-wide travel-at-will 'Travelcard', if purchased at Gatwick Airport, is priced differently depending on which of the two train companies' services a passenger wishes to use; this makes for extreme confusion for a ticket that is supposed to be valid on any train within the London area. For the sake of completeness, there are also motorcoach services linking London and Gatwick Airport; these services operate at the mercy of the traffic, so are slower. Since the above was written Connex lost the SouthCentral franchise to a different railco, and the Thameslink franchise has been renamed 'FirstCapitalConnect', however the crazy fares policy remains the same. |
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| Many urban transit systems use electronic ticketing systems with entry and exit gates, so whilst this view comes from the London Underground it could just as easily
have come from cities such as Paris, France; Madrid, Spain; Singapore; Boston, San Francisco, USA; Toronto, Montréal, Canada; and so on... Click the image to see a larger version. |
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On "open" systems the "fare paid" area in which all passengers are required to be in possession of a valid ticket is often delineated solely by signs plus a marking on the ground (ie: there are no physical ticket barriers). Many newer light rail systems use this system - this image comes from London's Docklands Light Railway and here the red line is clearly visible. |
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| The long 'pay on entry' delays that are commonplace with buses here in Britain also apply to some of Blackpool's one-person operated trams, as seen here in Fleetwood. Incidentally, it remains a criminal offence to pass between the tram and inside kerb whilst the tram is stationary at the stop. | |
At bus termini the 'off-vehicle' ticketing system means that passengers can board at their convenience whereas with the 'pay-on-entry' system passengers must wait until the driver has finished his/her statutory rest period before boarding the vehicle. One way to mitigate this passenger un-friendly arrangement is for a street-based ticket attendant to take fares instead. This picture comes from Newcastle-upon-Tyne - I've seen people performing similar rôles elsewhere too, for instance: on long rush hour queues at city centre bus stops in Adelaide, Australia. |
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| A feature of longer distance rail travel in Britain is that at weekends a supplement (paid in cash, on the train) allows holders of some types of second class tickets to upgrade to first class. | |
It does happen - once in a while fares do come down! |
In Europe public transport is seen as a social service which exists for the common good. For this reason it is usual for fares to be subsidised - especially ride-at-will season and day tickets - as part of environmental programmes designed to encourage more public transport usage. In Britain we have a very different approach; here the transport is seen as just another business that exists to make a profit and pay dividends to shareholders - it is just 'coincidental' that the main activity of the companies involved is passenger transport. Britain also differs on investment policy as the government will only allow investment in transports that will be profitable enough to both pay their way and raise sufficient funds to repay their construction costs. No matter how socially beneficial the investment might be. Although it requires a major investment to install ticket vending machines at every stop many European cities encourage passengers to buy their tickets in advance of travel from machines located at stops / newsagents / other local shops, etc,. Usually these advance purchase tickets will require validating before use, this entails (partially) inserting them into a machine that stamps a date, time & location marker which a roving inspector can read to ensure its validity. Locations for these validators vary from city to city but for services in the street environment they will either be the at bus / tram stops or on the vehicles whilst trains (and trams / light rail operating in 'railway mode') will use validators at the entrance to the station platform. However, in all situations passengers caught without validated tickets can expect to pay a high penalty fare.
In Essen, Germany the ticket validators (as above left) are located on the vehicles (buses, trams & light rail) and passengers are required to validate
their tickets on boarding - except at underground stations where they should use the validators located by the platform entrance (as above right). For the mainline suburban trains
these validators are located at station entrances only.
In some cities the driver will not sell tickets, or if (s)he does they will be at a higher price than if they had been bought in advance of travel. The idea is to encourage 'off-vehicle' sales as the system whereby passengers must queue to enter and pay the driver is frowned upon because it is known to cause significant delay to the service (its not for nothing that 'pay on entry' buses are also known as 'mobile traffic jams'). However in the face of mounting evidence of widespread fares evasion it is possible that many more European transport systems will either be introducing conductors or adopting the 'pay on entry' system.
Zürich, Switzerland is one of Europes' most prosperous cities with a very high rate of car ownership. And with over 50% of all travel being by public transport it is also fêted as having the most successful urban transport in Europe. As such it is living proof that where there is high-quality, closely integrated and reliable fixed-infrastructure transport even wealthy car-owners will choose to use it. Although part of this success is based on the types of transports used (electric trains, trams and trolleybuses - motorbuses are banished to out-of-town rural services) what binds everything together is the ticketing system. The overriding philosophy is to encourage passengers to buy advance purchase period and multiple-trip tickets by heavily subsiding them when compared to the cost of a single ticket such as is bought for immediate travel. This is primarily because once a person has a valid ticket they are more inclined to use it again and again, instead of going by car. These tickets are also cheaper for the transport operator (less cash to handle, less ticket 'card stock' used, etc.,) and the savings are passed back to the ticket holder. In Zürich most tickets are just 'entitlements to travel', this means they are fully shareable between friends and family, as long as only one person is using it at a time. However, if lost they cannot be replaced. Some of the more expensive period tickets can also be 'named' - although restricted to the holder only they can be replaced if lost. In Zürich tickets are easily available from a wide range of outlets including combined ticket sales & validating machines located at every stop, newsagents, local shops, hotels, railway stations and special staffed 'ticket here' booths located at a few very busy stops around the city. (as illustrated). Once validated (done before boarding the vehicle) even standard Single Fare Tickets allow the holder to travel at will (ie: make multiple journeys). This means that for no extra cost it is possible to break your journey, perhaps to do some shopping, and even make a return trip, providing all travelling is completed within a time limit. The only exception is with the short journey ticket which is designed for a single journey of only a couple of stops. For twice the price a standard Single Fare Ticket becomes a 24-hour ride-at-will ticket; but unlike the 'day rover' tickets available in many British cities which expire at midnight, in Zürich these last a full 24 hours (ie: validated at 11am, expires at 10.59am the next day) - so you get your full money's worth. Zürich has not forgotten the needs of less frequent passengers and to encourage them to use the transport there are several types of Multiple Fare Tickets which are bought in advance (from staffed ticket sales locations only) and provide the equivalent of six individual tickets more cheaply than if bought individually. These too are also fully transferable between family and friends, and can even be used by several people travelling at the same time as long as the correct number of 'journeys' (on the ticket) are validated - and everyone travels together as one group. To encourage young adults who might also be thinking of buying cars to continue using the public transports people aged under 25 can buy certain types of the advance purchase Multiple Fare and Season Tickets at reduced (child) rates; this is done because this is a most important age group who would be in the process of forming habits that will last a lifetime - and the desire is to encourage them to form the habit of using public transport! Users of these tickets are very strongly recommended to carry proof of age with them when they travel (to show the roving ticket inspectors). As in many cities roving ticket inspectors patrol the system and there are steep fines for travellers who cannot show a valid ticket. At the time of writing (September 2004) the fines are 60 Francs (approximately £28) for immediate cash payment or 80 Francs (approximately £38) for payment by invoice - with legal action for non payers. However holders of "named" season tickets have the option of showing it later (together with the penalty receipt) and receiving a refund (of the fine) less five Swiss Francs (approximately £2.35). |
Many North American systems use the fare box system where the driver collects fares (or pre-paid tokens) in a box to which they do not have access. This is safer for them, but also means that the passenger must tender the correct fare as it is not possible to give ('make') change. Interestingly, the land of 'free enterprise' and 'market forces' uses a very different philosophy on its public transport. Competition is strictly between public transportation per se and the private car ('automobile'). The transports do not compete within themselves! Fares are heavily subsidised, many cities have 'flat fares' which means that everyone pays the same irrespective of how far they are travelling. If the passenger knows that their journey will require a change of vehicle en route then when starting that journey they can ask for a 'transfer' which will enable the interchange to be made at minimal or no extra cost. However transfers are not usually required for locations where the whole interchange area forms part of the 'fare paid' zone. An example of this is seen at this subway station (from Toronto, Canada) where new passengers entering the system from the street must first pass the ticket barrier in the usual way and then have a choice of going downstairs to the subway or staying at street level for the streetcars or buses. Walking straight from the (street) footpath to the streetcar waiting / loading area is treated as fare dodging. Toronto's suburban 'GO' (Government of Ontario) rail system has a novel solution for reducing fare evasion by single-fare 'cash' ticket holders. These tickets 'nominate' which train they can be used on, (usually the next one) so even if a ticket is not checked en route you cannot use it to make multiple journeys.
Free Fare Zones.Some North American systems also feature free travel (ie: fare less, no charge) zones over part of their systems - usually the city centre core (CBD). The idea being to encourage city (office) workers not to use their cars when travelling about the city centre. Such zones often benefit local traders because these city workers will take advantage of the free travel and visit local stores for their shopping instead of using car-based out of town shops. The argument against these free travel zones is that car commuters end up not paying for the transport, while those people who use public transport to commute will have season tickets which already provide them with city centre travel at no extra cost. Experience in San Jose, California, where the free travel is only during off-peak hours (10am - 4pm / 10.00hrs - 16.00hrs) found it helped revitalise the city, and despite the cost - which was paid for in the rates - it has proven to be cost effective.
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Some cities use scratch card tickets which are not valid until the passenger has scratched over the sections for the day, date, times etc. Of course, if they make a mistake (ie; get the date wrong - a simple but common error) then the card is effectively voided. And the money wasted. Experience in Melbourne, Australia, showed that scratch card tickets offer much potential for fraud (very easy to use unvalidated) and are incompatible with electronic gates which require an ability to 'read' a ticket before allowing its holder to pass. Some of North America's most successful transit systems (Toronto, Canada & Boston, USA) use scratch cards as off-peak ride-at-will tickets, and at subway stations passengers must pass the staffed barrier. It is slower, but effective as the attendant carefully checks the ticket every time. In South America some cities speed up their 'bus rapid transit' (BRT) services by requiring passengers to pay their fare when arriving at the bus stop, so that when the bus arrives they can board it without the usual delays. In some cities (such as Curitiba, Brazil, as seen here) they use these visually distinctive high-platform street-based 'tube-stops' which are served by buses equipped with folding ramps which provide level access with the high level stop platform. |
These three images of the Curitiba, Brazil, double-articulated buses calling at 'tube-style' bus stops were sourced from the bus manufacturer's promotional material. |
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| To help minimize stop dwell times & speed the service passengers pay their fares on entry to the bus stop. Once inside the 'fare paid' area passengers can interchange to other services at no extra cost. |
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Rapid boarding & alighting is facilitated by step-plates which bridge the gap to the platform and are lowered from the bus once it has docked. |
In Asia several cities use stored value tickets which deduct the cost of each journey as it is made. To prevent problems the last journey can usually be made irrespective of the value left on the ticket, which the exit turnstile will then retain. Often these are plastic tickets which once 'spent' are retained for re-use (this also helps reduce litter).
These stored value tickets also allow for different fares to be charged at different times, as some places (for instance, Hong Kong) charge higher fares for travel in the peak hours.
In the 1990's some British transport planners / operators expressed a desire to introduce similar tickets in London, to replace the popular pay once and ride-at-will Travelcard (see below).
Many cities planetwide are looking at introducing 'smartcard' (sic) tickets. To make them more attractive to the general public they are often integrated with other services, such as purchases at confectioners, paying for telephone calls or even paying for car parking / road usage tolls. This saves people from the (claimed) hassle of carrying loose change and small amounts of cash. It also results in the creation of an electronic "paper trail" so that every person's movements and their smallest financial transactions can be recorded.
One of the first locations to widely adopt RFID tickets was Hong Kong.
Here the system is marketed under the Octopus label, and in addition to the public transports it can be widely used in over 253 different organisations including parking, retail, self services outlets (eg: vending machines) conferences and exhibitions, recreational facilities, school campuses, access control, some of the wet fish markets, and more... In many ways it could be said that although originally created for use on the Mass Transit Railway (MTR) Octopus now functions as a sort of all-purpose debit card.
In Hong Kong the RFID "chips" which form the basis of the Octopus system have almost become fashion accessories - they are not confined to transport - style tickets - but can be included in products such as jewellery (eg: rings), watches, located inside mobile telephones - and eventually the option will extend to just under the skin inside the person's body too. This latter option is not available yet but is already proven technology in the USA (see below) - so it is only a matter of time.
The maximum value which can be held on an Octopus RFID chip is HK$1,000. If the (financial) value on an Octopus is positive (i.e. HK$0.1 or above) but insufficient to cover the full cost of the next transaction it is permitted to incur a negative value of up to HK$35, which will be re-covered when the card is reloaded. However an Octopus with zero or negative value cannot be used until it is reloaded. Once loaded the value is valid for up to three years. After that time the value can be reactivated when it is next reloaded.
With Octopus not only is it possible to spend money almost anywhere, but it is possible add value to the RFID chips almost anywhere too - not only at MTR stations but also at establishments such as large-chain fast food (sic) establishments and local (neighbourhood) grocery stores. To make life even easier for Octopus RFID chip users, some financial institutions offer automatic Octopus AAVS (Automatic Add Value Services) whereby a person can register their Octopus RFID chip number with the bank / financial institution and then whenever its financial value reaches zero, a negative balance or when its remaining plus the maximum negative value is insufficient to settle the full cost of the transaction it will be automatically topped up with HK$250 - with the funds coming from a designated bank account or credit card. Octopus RFID chips can be automatically reloaded in this way once a day. Many participating credit card issuing banks or companies also give bonus points or cash rebates for AAVS transactions. Some financial institutions also offer this service for up to 3 other people aged 12 or above holding an Octopus RFID chip.
If lost then personalised Octopus RFID chip cards / products (or an Octopus card / product linked with AAVS) can be reported as such to prevent unauthorised use and minimise any possible loss. In this way liability will only be for the loss arising from unauthorised use of the card within six hours after the loss report. Personalising an Octopus is optional, and, if desired it can then include the holder's photograph.
Although electronic cash systems are generally very secure it is worth noting that when Octopus first started (in 1997) there was a smart university student who found a way to add-value to it "for free".
For more information visit the Octopus (English language) website at http://www.octopuscards.com/eng/index.htm (link to an external site which opens in a new window).
'Smartcard' (sic) and RFID ticketing systems are being introduced in Britain too. For London with its many independent transport providers part of the idea is to help the apportioning of fares - more accurately - between the various private transport companies and obtain better information about passenger flows so that it becomes easier to plan future investment.
Some British privatised transport companies are also enthusiastic for 'smartcard' (sic) ticketing because it will facilitate the easy introduction of customer loyalty schemes (equivalent to Air Miles) for regular passengers. One city where such a scheme is already operating is Bradford, West Yorkshire, where it is marketed under the name (or brand) of BusMiles. For more information visit the transport operator's website at http://www.firstgroup.com/firstcard/ (link to an external site which opens in a new window).
However the various Civil Liberty & Human Rights groups have expressed very strong concerns about the probability of big brother using these electronic tickets to keep tabs on people. Their worries would be easily mitigated if there was a legal right for travellers to have the option of impersonal 'smartcard' (sic) tickets which - like paper tickets - do not record the holders' identity. Naturally these tickets should not come at a price premium.
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| Homeward passengers scurry to catch a train which awaits them on the other platform at Stratford station, London.
This simple cross-platform interchange was purposely designed to make life easier for passengers but in the 1990's some "experts" suggested stifling this sort of free transfer between underground and mainline trains by splitting the platforms down the middle and forcing interchanging passengers to pass through a ticket barrier. It would have been interesting to see what they would have suggested for stations where differently owned trains share the same tracks and call at the same platforms. ----------------------------- |
Clicking the projector icon or this link will download a 56 second video clip named 'Stratford-x-pltfm320.mpg'
showing the action being described - and how, because the interchange is not guaranteed by the timetable so in an effort to keep the train running to time the train despatcher gets the train away 'very sharply'. |
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| Contact-free electronic ticketing - a silicon chipped RFID 'smartcard' (sic) being demonstrated at a public transport trade exhibition. As this illustration demonstrates these 'smartcard' (sic) tickets can be read without physical contact. This can make life much easier as there is be no need to fumble and remove it from a wallet / purse. ----------------------------- The image (above) has been sourced from S-VHS-C videotape and the larger clickable version is a little fuzzy. ----------------------------- |
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Clicking the projector icon or this link will download a 9 second video clip named 'RFID-Ticket320.mpg' showing the action being described. |
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| A "touch in / out" Oyster card reader at a station on London's Docklands Light Railway. Similar card readers are located at other locations where passengers might need to have their Oyster cards read. |
In London the electronic 'smartcard' (sic) tickets are marketed under the name (or brand) of Oyster.
Oyster comes in two variants - either as a standard season ticket or as a stored value pre-payment ticket which is marketed as PrePay. To increase flexibility it is possible to have several different Travelcard or BusPass season tickets and PrePay on a single Oyster card. If an Adult Oyster card is only used for PrePay then it can be shared with friends and relatives - providing that only one person is using it at a time.
Oyster cards containing Travelcards of one month or longer need to be registered. Oyster cards being used for weekly Travelcards and PrePay do not need registering, making them anonymous like paper tickets.
To use Oyster passengers must ensure that their ticket is electronically read by an Oyster card reader for every journey. This is known as 'touch in' and 'touch out'.
Oyster card readers are to be found on buses, tram stop platforms, on DLR stations before the "fare paid" area and on underground stations (plus participating suburban mainline railway systems) at the ticket barrier. Some interchange points between mainline and DLR / underground services have stand-alone card readers (ie; without barriers) which depending on ticket type and journey might need to be "touched" before interchanging - even if it means missing a connecting train. To ensure that they are charged the correct fare for their journey PrePay Oyster card users must also remember to "touch in / out" at stations where the ticket barriers are open.
On the buses and trams a passenger must 'touch in' at the start of every journey whilst on all other transports they must both 'touch in' at the station where they enter the railway system and 'touch out' at the station where they leave the railway system. As a general theme there is no need to 'touch' again when changing between different Underground and DLR trains, but until the mainline railways all accept PrePay (see below) then in most cases passengers using PrePay will need to 'touch' when switching to / from mainline trains - and a different ticket will be required for the mainline portions of the journey. Note however that especially when travelling off-peak these through journeys will often be as much as 50% less expensive if 'paper' one-day Travelcards are used - instead of using PrePay plus separate ticket(s) for the mainline railway portion(s) of the journey.
A special situation arises at Stratford station as here all passengers using the Jubilee Line must pass through ticket gates dedicated to its platforms - even if they had just passed through a barrier to enter the station from the street. However the system has been programmed so that no-one holding a properly valid ticket suffers a financial disbenefit.
Since 19th November 2006 'touching in' with a PrePay Oyster card has had the effect of charging the maximum possible cash fare (£4.00 on Underground / DLR or £5.00 on participating mainline railway services) which is then adjusted to the correct fare for the journey on 'touching out'. This is to encourage people to both touch in and out. Passengers who fail to 'touch in' run the risk of being seen as travelling without a valid ticket, which can lead to a penalty fare being charged, or even their being taken to court for fares evasion.
There is a twofold policy of enticements to encourage people to switch from paying in cash to Oyster.
* 1)Virtually all underground, DLR, bus & tram single tickets are cheaper if paid for electronically using an Oyster cards' PrePay stored value, and not by cash. The potential savings can be as much as 50%! The aim is to speed up bus journeys and reduce ticket queues at Underground stations. For this reason visitors from outside London may find that it very financially advantageous to never pay cash - and instead either buy paper Bus Passes, Travelcards or an Oyster PrePay.
* 2) There is a discount 'capped fares' policy whereby people who make multiple single fare journeys in one day and pay for them electronically using a PrePay Oyster card will be not be charged a daily total that is greater than 50 pence less than the cost of a one-day ride-at-will Travelcard. (Bus passengers will save 50 pence on the cost of a one-day bus pass). A 'day' is considered to be a 24 hour period between 4.30am and 4.30am the next morning. The system has been programmed to take into account of the weekday morning peak and will automatically select the 'peak' cap fare scale if any travel is before 9.30am Monday - Friday (Bank Holidays excepted). Otherwise the 'off-peak' cap fare scale will be used. To take advantage of fare capping a traveller must ensure that they 'touch in/out' when commencing and ending every railway journey ('touch-out' is not used on buses / trams). Otherwise they will be charged the maximum single fare (as described above) and the cost of the journey will not be included in the capping. This applies at all times - even if the ticket barriers are 'open', or if there are no ticket barriers at all. If 'touching in/out' is not possible (for instance, when the power grid fails and nothing electronic works - a very likely occurrence as we approach 2012) then they must contact the Oyster helpline (ie: telephone - at their expense).
If an Oyster card fails to operate the user must pay cash and contact the helpline for advice what to do next.
The initial plans for Oyster included the use of PrePay on the mainline trains too, but several unexpected hitches became apparent to prevent this. Apparently Oyster was incompatible with the mainline railway ticketing system, plus it seemed that some of the mainline suburban TOCS were less than enthusiastic for this type of ticketing system and equally reluctant to invest their own money in the required ticket reading equipment. The compatibility issues were solved at the behest of the national government who saw the potential benefits of nationwide compatibility of RFID ticketing systems. The financial reluctance to invest in Oyster card reading equipment at 300+ plus mainline stations was solved by Transport for London agreeing to help out financially. It is understood that one of the other hitches is that at least some of the mainline TOC's are / were concerned that by using data from electronic ticketing to accurately determine how many passengers they are actually carrying might lead to a reduction in the monies they receive from the pooled Travelcard receipts. Although not discussed publically no doubt there has been a cosy backroom agreement to solve this - again, at taxpayer's expense.
A special situation arises at Wimbledon station where the trams, mainline and underground trains are all in the station's 'fare paid' area - this is because these three types of railway follow very different fare scales, which effectively mean that passengers may need to be charged separately for the different stages of their overall journey. The notes below (in small text) only apply to passengers using Oyster PrePay; passengers with season tickets (ie: daily / weekly / monthly etc., Travelcards) have it easy, as they only need to worry about ticket barriers & 'touching in/out' if they are entering or leaving the station.
At Wimbledon Oyster PrePay users intending to interchange from the underground to the tram must 'touch out' using the card readers on the platform of arrival and then register the tram fare by 'touching in' on a card reader on the tram platform. Oyster PrePay users interchanging from tram to underground just need to 'touch in' using card readers on the underground train's platforms. Oyster PrePay users switching from mainline trains to trams also need register the tram fare by 'touching' a card reader on the tram platform, however until PrePay is used on the mainline trains they will need a separate paper ticket to travel on the mainline trains. At present Oyster PrePay users switching between underground and mainline trains only need to 'touch in/out' (as appropriate) on the card readers on the underground platforms, as they too need separate paper tickets to travel on the mainline trains. To ensure they are charged the correct fare tram passengers starting their journey from the street will therefore have to 'touch in' twice - first to pass the ticket barrier (a process which registers an entry to the station) and then on the tram platform (a process which changes that station entry to a tram fare). Following these procedures will also ensure that PrePay fares capping is applied correctly, if applicable. The ticketing procedures described here are expected to change when the mainline trains start accepting Oyster PrePay.Therefore whilst (at present) PrePay and the 'capped fares' policy are fully effective on buses, trams, the underground and the Docklands Light Railway, they are only used on a few suburban mainline rail services. There is more information about Oyster on their website at http://www.oystercard.com. (Link to an external site which opens in a new window).
It is hoped that in the longer term there will not be a revival of the nefarious money grabbing idea which dates from the 1990's when some national politicians and transport planners (especially from the privatised railways) expressed a long term desire to abolish London's pay-once / ride-at-will tickets and switch to the stored value system (as is used in Hong Kong, Singapore, plus other Asian cities) whereby passengers are charged 'something' for every individual journey. The multi-modal aspect of the Travelcard would be retained but as a stored value ticket it would enable a better fares take from those passengers who have the temerity to use it more frequently than the simple home / work / home 5 days a week basis. (Effectively this would make such tickets considerably more expensive for these heavier users.) The advent of Oyster and PrePay would facilitate such a conversion very easily.
(It is assumed that passengers would NOT welcome this change.)
In December 2006 it was announced that a deal had been signed with a major British bank to create a new style of 'three-in-one' combined Oyster / cashless low value shopping / credit card. The low value shopping aspect of the card will be for purchases of less than £10, such as buying coffee or newspapers and will use the 'wave and go' technology which some credit card companies already use outside the UK (and are planning to introduce here too). The purpose of 'wave and go' is to replace cash for low value transactions and speed up purchases, as there will not normally be a requirement to enter a pin number in to a credit card terminal. The phrase 'wave and go' is used because the transaction is contactless - the cardholder holds their card near to the card reader, but there is no need to physically touch it.
Trials using these cards began in December 2006, and were restricted to the Bank's own staff. By May 2007 the trials were judged to have been successful and the roll-out of the new cards to the general public began in September 2007. They are being marketed under the name of 'OnePulse'.
With OnePulse cards purchases made in credit card and 'wave and go' modes are billed to the holder's card account. The Oyster aspect is loaded on to the card separately and can be as either Travelcards or PrePay.
A growing list of retailers are accepting OnePulse in 'wave and go' mode, although an unexpected issue is that there is some confusion where retailers still enforce minimum "card" transaction amounts - with users stuck between a £10 retailer minimum and a £10 cashless maximum limit.
At one time it was believed that electronic ticketing systems would require the gating of every station and interchange that will be inside the area involved - something which would be expensive as there are many mainline suburban stations in London which are open (ie: not fitted with electronic ticket gates) and in some places these mainline suburban trains offer direct interchange access to platforms served by Underground trains. Sufficient staff would also have to be employed to stop having to switch the gates off (ie: leaving them open) while the duty member of staff has their tea / lunch breaks. However as technology advances the advent of 'smartcard' (sic) ticketing systems (such as Oyster) offers alternative possibilities - especially if the RFID (radio frequency identification) technology as is used in supermarkets to help catch shoplifters (see below) was used on the public transports too. Indeed, with a fully wireless RFID transport 'smartcard' (sic) ticket it would be possible to completely abolish all ticket barriers - all a passenger with a RFID ticket would need do is walk normally - the system would detect them automatically, and charge them for their journey accordingly. The core technology is already proven viable. The use of similar RFID technologies has also been mooted to replace passport checks eg: at airports.
Many stores locate RFID chips in their products because it helps reduce theft. RFID chips are very small - about the size of a grain of rice - and easily hidden within packaging, etc. The anti-theft system works by locating RFID readers at the exit doorways so that any RFID tag which has not been deactivated at the checkout will be read as it is taken off the premises - and an alarm will sound.
One very important (as yet unresolved) issue concerns the interoperability of electronic ticketing systems as used in different conurbations - from a passengers' point of view having one ticket which could be used anywhere nationwide (globally?) might sound very attractive - but would privatised transport operating companies welcome this?
However, this new technology also poses risks for new frauds: --
If a person has several credit and store cards plus a transport RFID 'smartcard' (sic) all of which can be read electronically as they enter a station's 'fare paid' area, can they be confident
that the fare will only be charged to one of them??
Could a 'grabber' intercept the reading of a chipped or RFID card and perhaps clone it??
Could a 'grabber' intercept the reading of a chipped or RFID card and perhaps empty it??
Could criminals set up their own street-based (or shop entrance) RFID card readers to perform either of the actions described above?? (they have already proven remarkable successful in doing this
with 'magnetic stripe' cards being used at bank 'hole-in-the-wall' cash dispenser machines.)
If there was a 'major incident' crime would the police be able to trace ordinary innocent people and treat them as potential criminals just because the system knew they were there?
Another emerging technological use for RFID chip 'Smartcards' comes via the national government's proposals for 'pay as you drive' road pricing based on RFID chips located on all motor vehicles which would be 'read' by means of roadside RFID readers with a 300 metre (yard) capability. Will this also read (but hopefully not charge!) all public transport RFID chips (as well as the implantable RFID which some people locate inside their bodies - see below), just so that the system can keep tabs on who is where...?
Another (of the many) locations looking at using RFID ticketing systems in the country of Holland. As with the pre-existing paper "Strippenkaart" (strip ticket) systems the idea is to create a ticket which can be used virtually anywhere nationwide. This is seen to be a much more user friendly way of doing things than here in Britain where as a general theme tickets are either town / city specific or transport operator specific.
Known as the "OV-chipkaart" (Public Transport Chipkaart) the system is currently (April 2008) in public testing phase. The idea was that the Strippenkaart paper ticket system would be abolished on New Years day January 2009. However as the OV-chipkaart's chip has been hacked there is now uncertainty whether this will happen as planned.
Apparently the cracking went in stages: First the paper throwaway version of the OV-chipcard (with only a very thin layer of security) was cracked, then the full chipkaart was partially hacked, and then fully hacked. Apparently the hacking is said to have been possible because of a bad implementation of the random number generator, so that half the bits were guessable and the other half were relatively easy to crack, given a few hours. All this means that it is now possible for a hacker to read the card of a passing-by passenger, and copy any money or season tickets that are onto this card to a false card. As a local person said
it's now about as secure as a creditcard with using only the numbers, and not one of the additional safety features (name, autograph, PIN-code, magnetic stripe etc) is...
As many people know, everything in life is connected. The topic of electronic ticketing systems which would also permit the continuous detection and tracking of a passengers' journey crosses over into many other aspects of life - creating new possibilities for improving our daily lives, as well as new dangers - and this section looks at some of these issues.. Note that these comments are not intended to be judgmental - just to explore the possibilities.
Whilst high-tech RFID tickets will provide passengers with many advantages which can 'add value' to their daily lives (aka: make life easier for them) many far-sighted thinking people also see their widespread introduction as potentially posing significant dangers to personal liberties and hard-won much cherished freedoms. This is even possible in Britain - especially as once an 'emergency' situation has been declared the Civil Contingency legislation of 2004 would suspend over 1000 years of freedoms, human rights, etc.
In other words, electronic 'smartcard' (sic), RFID ticketing systems might be being 'sold' to the mass population as an easier & cheaper way to pay transport fares but once the technology is in place its uses could easily be expanded to 'other' areas / uses...
It does not help that passengers wishing to use monthly or longer season tickets on a London Oyster ticket requires them to register. (For PrePay and weekly seasons registering is optional, although if this is done then the monetary value of the pass and funds will also be protected against loss or theft). Whilst PrePay users would expect their every 'touch in / out' transaction to be recorded (in case of query later - and for the 'fare capping' to work) there is no reason why users with pay once ride-at-will 'Travelcard' tickets should have any of their movements tracked. It would help placate passengers' concerns if there was an option for no more recording of a person's journey data than was the situation when travellers used paper (thin cardboard) tickets. London's Oyster is only used as an example - similar comments apply to all such electronic ticketing systems - where ever globally.
The concern is that whilst the RFID tickets are still being introduced and gaining public acceptance their use will remain very muted, and benign, but in time they will be merged with credit cards, ID cards etc., and people forced (by law) to carry them at all times, ultimately perhaps with street-based readers located "everywhere' so that the state can keep tabs on people's whereabout 24/7/365 (366 in leap years!). Many British cities already have extensive CCTV (closed circuit television) surveillance systems - some of which are linked into computers running facial recognition software. It has also been known for CCTV operators to sell the footage they obtain to third parties, such as broadcast television companies, and whilst many people see some benefits, abuses are not unknown.
Some pundits (outside of the transport industry) have even suggested that somehow it would help with 'freedom' if everyone (at least, all of this planet's human population) had RFID chips inserted into their bodies - just under their skin (ie: subdermal RFID chipping - in the same way that cats and dogs are often implanted today) - as that way a person could never go out and forget to carry their 'papers'.
The promoters of subdermal RFID chipping suggest that there would be some 'very useful' advantages - for instance if (in an emergency situation) a comatose person is brought into hospital it would very much assist the medical staff if they were able to interrogate the chip to immediately discover the unfortunate person's identity, whether they have health insurance and their medical records (blood group, allergies, prescribed medications, etc). Otherwise the delay whilst this information is obtained could hamper treatment, and ultimately, the recovery. Many forgetful people might also find an advantage in being chipped as then they would never again set out on a journey but leave their travel tickets (and house keys!) at home. One very emotive argument which has been advocated for chipping everybody at birth is that when combined with a network of street-based 'chip readers' it would make child abduction much harder.
If these ideas came into fruition we could end up with a 'chipped' population whose every movement could be monitored (by the State as well as an unknown number of possibly unscrupulous commercial organisations) at all times. Whether people would want big brother being able to keep tabs on them in this way is questionable, certainly however this technology would have been of use (to the public detriment) in totalitarian regimes such as 1930's Germany and the pre-1990's Soviet Union.
Anyone who has seen the film 'Minority Report' will have noticed how everyone has to undergo a retina scan (eye scan) as they go about their daily lives. This includes when boarding a Washington Subway train and entering a retail clothing store where the computer welcomes the main character (Tom Cruise) by name and asks about his previous purchase.
In the film he changes his identity by changing his eyes.
As of April 2005 implantable RFID chips became commercially available from a company named VeriChip. For more information visit their website at http://www.verichipcorp.com/
and the Wikipedia, the free encyclopaedia online at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Verichip.
This link leads to an article about an American police chief who was so enthusiastic with the technology and its possibilities that he had himself implanted...
http://www.theinquirer.net/?article=22766.
Some people see this technology as being similar to the mark of the beast as described in 'end time' prophecies. These links lead to more information:-
http://www.cybertime.net/~ajgood/chipindex.html.
NO CHIP FOR ME ---- I WANT TO BE FREE!! http://www.cybertime.net/~ajgood/nochip.html.
Click on George Orwell's ID card to visit the British campaigning site http://www.no2id.net about Government proposals for ID cards and a national database of information (National Identity Register) on
our every movements, financial transactions, medical records, convictions etc., for which transport orientated electronic ticketing systems are one of the routes by which the technology can be introduced, and honed.
(links to external sites open in new windows).
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